A History of Roman Lancashire
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The precise geography of these campaigns is unclear, although future archaeological investigations may clarify some of the events. It is known that the armies advanced northwards on both sides of the Pennines, probably moving up river valleys into the interior to split the Brigantes into smaller groups which could more easily be neutralised. The Ribble and Lune estuaries and Morecambe Bay were probably used for seaborne landings, and there is growing evidence that Roman sites such as Kirkham and Lancaster may have been founded as bases in the first stages of the invasion before land penetration was possible. The next phase was probably an overland advance from the south: the high-level Roman road north-wards from Manchester to Ribchester and the Lune valley was the route of one such thrust, but recent discoveries of marching camps at Middlewich and possibly Warrington suggest that there was also a low-level advance along the line of the modern A49 and A6.
 By the end of the 70s forts had been established at Manchester, Ribchester, Lancaster, Burrow in Lonsdale, Kirkham and Castleshaw (near Oldham). In the early 80s the subjugation of the Brigantes was complete and peace had been imposed, but much of the hill territory was not fully garrisoned until a second campaign, between 90 and 130, when the conquest was carried to its logical conclusion. The Lake District was occupied and control of Lancashire south of the sands was consolidated. During this period the difficult road was built across the central fells from Ambleside via Little Langdale and the Wrynose to Hardknott and Ravenglass. Existing forts in Lancashire were constructed and improved, with earth-and-turf ramparts rebuilt in stone as at Lancaster or reinforced and realigned as at Manchester. The upgrading of defences continued until the mid-second century: at Manchester stone ramparts were eventually constructed in about 165.
 The needs of the military encouraged the development of essential industries at places such as Quernmore near Lancaster, which had important potteries, and at Walton le Dale where a very extensive military supply depot was laid out in the angle between the Ribble and Darwen rivers. The true extent of the civilian settlements, or vici, outside the military sites is becoming apparent as archaeological investigations begin to focus on these features. In the vici lived the families of soldiers, the people engaged in service trades such as shopkeeping and administration, and hangers-on such as prostitutes and pedlars. The vicus at Lancaster extended over the area now occupied by the town centre, sheltering beneath the fort on the hilltop where the castle and priory church are today, and some streets in central Lancaster follow the alignment of those in the Roman town. At Manchester the vicus extended northwards from the fort along the line of the modern Deansgate, which was the main Roman road to Ribchester. Excavations here have revealed a sizeable industrial area with more than thirty smelting hearths as well as wooden sheds and metal-working sites. The first hint of possible Christian worship in the county appears in a word-square, a pottery fragment inscribed with a cryptogram based on the phrase PATER NOSTER (Our Father), which was found in the vicus at Manchester and was dated to the mid-second century A.D. It has long been known that there was a significant Roman presence, probably including a fort and civilian settlement at Wigan, although despite recent archaeological investigation its precise characteristics are still unclear. Coal from the Wigan area was certainly used as the fuel in industrial processes such as iron-smelting at Wilderspool, opposite Warrington, during the Roman period, although all traces of the mining operations themselves have been obliterated by later development. The Roman settlement at Ribchester began as an early fort but the site. a major road junction, retained its importance and underwent a long sequence of improvements and rebuildings. The Roman name, one of the few known with certainty from Lancashire, was BREMETENNACVM (or variants) VETERANORUM, the second word indicating a settlement of army veterans who may have been given land in the area.
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